TheAlgorithms · dinilH · Oct 30, 2025
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+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+/**
+ * FNV-1a (Fowler-Noll-Vo) is a non-cryptographic hash function created by Glenn Fowler, Landon
+ * Curt Noll, and Kiem-Phong Vo.
+ *
+ * <p>The FNV-1a variant provides better avalanche characteristics (bit changes distribute more
+ * uniformly) compared to the original FNV-1.
+ *
+ * <p>Key properties:
+ * <ul>
+ *   <li>Fast computation - simple operations (XOR and multiply)</li>
+ *   <li>Good distribution - minimizes hash collisions</li>
+ *   <li>Non-cryptographic - not suitable for security purposes</li>
+ *   <li>Widely used in hash tables, checksums, and data structures</li>
+ * </ul>
+ *
+ * <p>Algorithm: hash = FNV_offset_basis for each byte in data: hash = hash XOR byte hash = hash *
+ * FNV_prime
+ *
+ * <p>FNV-1a 32-bit: FNV_offset_basis = 2166136261 (0x811c9dc5) FNV_prime = 16777619 (0x01000193)
+ *
+ * <p>FNV-1a 64-bit: FNV_offset_basis = 14695981039346656037 (0xcbf29ce484222325) FNV_prime =
+ * 1099511628211 (0x100000001b3)
+ *
+ * <p>Time Complexity: O(n) where n is the length of the input
+ * <p>Space Complexity: O(1)
+ *
+ * @author dinilH
+ * @see <a href="http://www.isthe.com/chongo/tech/comp/fnv/">FNV Hash</a>
+ * @see <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fowler%E2%80%93Noll%E2%80%93Vo_hash_function">FNV on Wikipedia</a>
+ */
+public final class FNV1aHash {
+
+    // FNV-1a 32-bit parameters
+    private static final int FNV_32_INIT = 0x811c9dc5;
+    private static final int FNV_32_PRIME = 0x01000193;
+
+    // FNV-1a 64-bit parameters
+    private static final long FNV_64_INIT = 0xcbf29ce484222325L;
+    private static final long FNV_64_PRIME = 0x100000001b3L;
+
+    private FNV1aHash() {
+        // Utility class - prevent instantiation
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 32-bit FNV-1a hash of the input string.
+     *
+     * @param data the input string to hash
+     * @return the 32-bit hash value as an integer
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static int hash32(String data) {
+        if (data == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null");
+        }
+        return hash32(data.getBytes(java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 32-bit FNV-1a hash of the input byte array.
+     *
+     * @param data the input byte array to hash
+     * @return the 32-bit hash value as an integer
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static int hash32(byte[] data) {
+        if (data == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input byte array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        int hash = FNV_32_INIT;
+
+        for (byte b : data) {
+            hash ^= (b & 0xff); // XOR with byte (ensure unsigned)
+            hash *= FNV_32_PRIME; // Multiply by FNV prime
+        }
+
+        return hash;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 64-bit FNV-1a hash of the input string.
+     *
+     * @param data the input string to hash
+     * @return the 64-bit hash value as a long
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static long hash64(String data) {
+        if (data == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input string cannot be null");
+        }
+        return hash64(data.getBytes(java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 64-bit FNV-1a hash of the input byte array.
+     *
+     * @param data the input byte array to hash
+     * @return the 64-bit hash value as a long
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static long hash64(byte[] data) {
+        if (data == null) {
+            throw new IllegalArgumentException("Input byte array cannot be null");
+        }
+
+        long hash = FNV_64_INIT;
+
+        for (byte b : data) {
+            hash ^= (b & 0xff); // XOR with byte (ensure unsigned)
+            hash *= FNV_64_PRIME; // Multiply by FNV prime
+        }
+
+        return hash;
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 32-bit FNV-1a hash and returns it as a hex string.
+     *
+     * @param data the input string to hash
+     * @return the hash value as an 8-character hex string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static String hash32Hex(String data) {
+        return String.format("%08x", hash32(data));
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * Computes the 64-bit FNV-1a hash and returns it as a hex string.
+     *
+     * @param data the input string to hash
+     * @return the hash value as a 16-character hex string
+     * @throws IllegalArgumentException if data is null
+     */
+    public static String hash64Hex(String data) {
+        return String.format("%016x", hash64(data));
+    }
+}
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+package com.thealgorithms.others;
+
+import static org.junit.jupiter.api.Assertions.*;
+
+import org.junit.jupiter.api.Test;
+
+class FNV1aHashTest {
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32EmptyString() {
+        // Empty string should return the FNV offset basis
+        assertEquals(0x811c9dc5, FNV1aHash.hash32(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32SingleCharacter() {
+        assertEquals(0xe40c292c, FNV1aHash.hash32("a"));
+        assertEquals(0xe70c2de5, FNV1aHash.hash32("b"));
+        assertEquals(0xe60c2c52, FNV1aHash.hash32("c"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32SimpleStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0x4ed566da, FNV1aHash.hash32("Hello"));
+        assertEquals(0xdcfc127b, FNV1aHash.hash32("World"));
+        assertEquals(0xc0bb652b, FNV1aHash.hash32("Algorithms"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32LongString() {
+        assertEquals(0x048fff90, FNV1aHash.hash32("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32Consistency() {
+        // Same input should always produce same output
+        String input = "test";
+        int hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash32(input);
+        int hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash32(input);
+        assertEquals(hash1, hash2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32Differentiation() {
+        // Different inputs should produce different outputs
+        int hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash32("test");
+        int hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash32("Test");
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32WithByteArray() {
+        byte[] data = "Hello".getBytes(java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+        assertEquals(0x4ed566da, FNV1aHash.hash32(data));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32WithEmptyByteArray() {
+        byte[] data = new byte[0];
+        assertEquals(0x811c9dc5, FNV1aHash.hash32(data));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32NullStringThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash32((String) null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32NullByteArrayThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash32((byte[]) null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64EmptyString() {
+        // Empty string should return the FNV offset basis
+        assertEquals(0xcbf29ce484222325L, FNV1aHash.hash64(""));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64SingleCharacter() {
+        assertEquals(0xaf63dc4c8601ec8cL, FNV1aHash.hash64("a"));
+        assertEquals(0xaf63df4c8601f1a5L, FNV1aHash.hash64("b"));
+        assertEquals(0xaf63de4c8601f012L, FNV1aHash.hash64("c"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64SimpleStrings() {
+        assertEquals(0x63f4e1f2c97e89ebL, FNV1aHash.hash64("Hello"));
+        assertEquals(0x0f18f77b44424a53L, FNV1aHash.hash64("World"));
+        assertEquals(0x289a4c6f7f076f3bL, FNV1aHash.hash64("Algorithms"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64LongString() {
+        assertEquals(0xf3f9b7f5e7e47110L, FNV1aHash.hash64("The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64Consistency() {
+        // Same input should always produce same output
+        String input = "test";
+        long hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash64(input);
+        long hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash64(input);
+        assertEquals(hash1, hash2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64Differentiation() {
+        // Different inputs should produce different outputs
+        long hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash64("test");
+        long hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash64("Test");
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash2);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64WithByteArray() {
+        byte[] data = "Hello".getBytes(java.nio.charset.StandardCharsets.UTF_8);
+        assertEquals(0x63f4e1f2c97e89ebL, FNV1aHash.hash64(data));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64WithEmptyByteArray() {
+        byte[] data = new byte[0];
+        assertEquals(0xcbf29ce484222325L, FNV1aHash.hash64(data));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64NullStringThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash64((String) null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64NullByteArrayThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash64((byte[]) null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32HexFormat() {
+        assertEquals("4ed566da", FNV1aHash.hash32Hex("Hello"));
+        assertEquals("dcfc127b", FNV1aHash.hash32Hex("World"));
+        assertEquals("811c9dc5", FNV1aHash.hash32Hex("")); // Empty string
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64HexFormat() {
+        assertEquals("63f4e1f2c97e89eb", FNV1aHash.hash64Hex("Hello"));
+        assertEquals("0f18f77b44424a53", FNV1aHash.hash64Hex("World"));
+        assertEquals("cbf29ce484222325", FNV1aHash.hash64Hex("")); // Empty string
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32HexNullThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash32Hex(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64HexNullThrowsException() {
+        assertThrows(IllegalArgumentException.class, () -> FNV1aHash.hash64Hex(null));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32WithUnicodeCharacters() {
+        // Test with Unicode characters
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> FNV1aHash.hash32("Hello 世界"));
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> FNV1aHash.hash32("🚀 Rocket"));
+
+        // Different Unicode strings should have different hashes
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash32("Hello"), FNV1aHash.hash32("Hello 世界"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64WithUnicodeCharacters() {
+        // Test with Unicode characters
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> FNV1aHash.hash64("Hello 世界"));
+        assertDoesNotThrow(() -> FNV1aHash.hash64("🚀 Rocket"));
+
+        // Different Unicode strings should have different hashes
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash64("Hello"), FNV1aHash.hash64("Hello 世界"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32Distribution() {
+        // Test that similar strings produce different hashes
+        int hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash32("algorithm");
+        int hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash32("algorithms");
+        int hash3 = FNV1aHash.hash32("algorithmz");
+
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash2);
+        assertNotEquals(hash2, hash3);
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash3);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64Distribution() {
+        // Test that similar strings produce different hashes
+        long hash1 = FNV1aHash.hash64("algorithm");
+        long hash2 = FNV1aHash.hash64("algorithms");
+        long hash3 = FNV1aHash.hash64("algorithmz");
+
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash2);
+        assertNotEquals(hash2, hash3);
+        assertNotEquals(hash1, hash3);
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash32WithNumericStrings() {
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash32("123"), FNV1aHash.hash32("1234"));
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash32("999"), FNV1aHash.hash32("1000"));
+    }
+
+    @Test
+    void testHash64WithNumericStrings() {
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash64("123"), FNV1aHash.hash64("1234"));
+        assertNotEquals(FNV1aHash.hash64("999"), FNV1aHash.hash64("1000"));
+    }
+}